Esty and Porter Recommend Imposing a Price on Carbon Emission in the U. S.

Summary:  Carbon dioxide is a major greenhouse gas produced by burning fossil fuels.  It leads to increased average global temperature, which is thought to be causing a variety of climate-related harms to life across the planet.  Carbon dioxide may be considered to be a waste product of our energy economy that has not yet been properly accounted for in the energy cost structure.

As a first step in developing a national energy policy in the U. S., Dan Esty and Michael E. Porter, writing in the New York Times, propose an economy-wide price on carbon.  It would start initially at a low rate and increase over time to a more significant value.  They point out that other nations and regions of the world already put a price on fossil fuel-derived carbon dioxide.  This would be an important initiative for the U. S., changing consumer behaviors and promoting innovation in a new energy economy.

Introduction. The world relies heavily on burning fossil fuels (coal, oil products and natural gas) to provide its energy needs.  These fuels all contain carbon that, when burned, emits carbon dioxide gas (CO₂) into the atmosphere.  Carbon dioxide is a major greenhouse gas which has been accumulating in the earth’s atmosphere faster than it can be removed by other processes.  With the industrial revolution, mankind began to be dependent on energy from fossil fuels as opposed to using renewable surface fuels such as wood.  Since its start the atmospheric concentration of CO₂ has increased from about 280 parts per million (ppm; i.e., 280 volumes of CO₂ in a total of 1,000,000 volumes of air) to about 390 ppm presently.  Today the atmospheric concentration of CO₂ is increasing at about 2 ppm per year. 

CO₂ is a greenhouse gas, acting to retain a portion of the sun’s energy reaching the earth, resulting in a warming of the long-term global average atmospheric temperature, to date, of about 0.7°C (1. 3°F) above the level prior to the start of the industrial revolution.  Humanity is on track to continue burning fossil fuels at an ever increasing rate, barring interventions to reverse the trend, which would lead to even higher global average temperature levels.  The increased temperature has serious climatic consequences worldwide which are detrimental to the wellbeing of humans across the face of the earth.

CO₂ as Waste. Another way of considering the use of fossil fuels, described in the previous post on this blog, is that CO₂ is a waste product of our industrialized life style, but one whose costs have not been built in to the fuel and energy industry.  Some human activities have factored in the costs of generating and disposing of our waste; household and retail waste, and treatment of waste water are some examples that come to mind.  The services that dispose of these wastes are already charged to consumers, for example through local taxes or direct billings to the users.  In contrast, there is no cost structure built into the pricing of energy from fossil fuels that accounts for the harmful results to man’s welfare arising from higher global temperatures.  Adding a waste charge to our use of fossil fuel energy makes sense in order properly to account for such harms.

The U. S. Has No Energy Policy. The United States is the only major consumer of fossil fuel-derived energy without a national energy policy.  The recent sharp increase in the price for crude petroleum, dating at least from the outbreak of the revolutionary movement in Libya in the spring of 2011, has resulted in correspondingly sharp increases in the price of gasoline and diesel used for personal and commercial transport.  The reaction from the public and politicians has been a clamor to “do something” to lower the prices.  “Something” might include drawing oil from the U. S. strategic petroleum reserve, or encouraging foreign suppliers to pump more oil from the ground for delivery to the U. S., to increase the supply and thereby lower the price “tomorrow”, i.e. in the near term.  This shows how the U. S. is highly dependent on, if not addicted to, imported oil for its transportation fuel.

Imposing a Price on Carbon.  Instead of such a short-term response acknowledging our dependence, strategically the appropriate response would be to adopt a rigorous, substantive energy policy that would reduce our dependence on fossil fuels, including imported crude oil.  In the New York Times of April 28, 2011,  Dan Esty, the Commissioner of the Department of Environmental Protection of the American state of Connecticut, and Michael E. Porter, a professor at Harvard University’s Business School, propose an economy-wide price on carbon, starting initially at a low rate but increasing over time to a more significant value.  In 2012 the price is proposed to be $5/ton of greenhouse gases emitted, reaching $100/ton by 2032.  By way of reference, for gasoline this would correspond to an increase of $0.043 per gallon in 2012, becoming an increase of $0.87 per gallon by 2032 (based on calculations that appeared in an early post on this blog).  Comm. Esty and Prof. Porter point out that the initial burden on consumers and businesses as shown here would be almost negligible. 

As noted, the carbon price is envisioned to apply on all forms of fossil fuels, being assessed, for example, on the basis of flue discharges of greenhouse gases at large scale generating plants, and on the basis of gallons of fuel delivered for motor vehicle fuels; likewise natural gas delivery would also be assessed.  As the charge increases, it would promote behaviors that lead to increased competitiveness and innovation.

Carbon Pricing in Other Regions of the World. The authors note that a carbon tax on fossil fuels already figures prominently in other areas of the world.  Europe has had a cap-and-trade regime governing fossil fuel use, first imposed as the nations of Europe joined the Kyoto Protocol of 1997.  In 2011 the European Union issued a long-term energy policy, according to which the member states pledge to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 80% to 95% below 1990 levels by 2050.  Second, although China, being a developing country, is excluded from coverage under the Kyoto Protocol, in its 12^th Five Year Plan for the years 2011-2015 it is closing its most inefficient coal-fired electricity plants.  It is also drastically increasing its use of renewable or alternative energy sources.  Additionally China is putting a small number of local cap-and-trade markets in place as pilot projects.

Regional Greenhouse Gas Accords in North America.  Energy policy is highly politicized in the United States.  Since the U. S. has failed to develop a single nation-wide policy, three regional greenhouse gas agreements have been adopted among various American states and Canadian provinces—the Western Climate Initiative, the Midwest Greenhouse Gas Reduction Accord, and the New England and mid-Atlantic Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative.  These programs have levels of coverage and differing terms duration.  Being agreements between sovereign states and provinces, actual implementation requires that each participating state or province pass its own legislation in order to put the terms of the agreement in force.  These factors obviously render compliance complicated and regionally inconsistent.  Commercial and industrial activity is impeded by not having a single national policy covering the countries in question.

Conclusion.  Commissioner Esty and Professor Porter recommend that the U. S. put in place a price on carbon, starting in 2012 at a very low level, and ramping up to a more significant price over 20 years.  They point out that this would affect consumer behavior in a way that would lead to greater energy efficiency and development of alternative energy sources.  The U. S. currently has no national energy policy.  This proposal would be a good start to putting one in place. 

© 2011 Henry Auer

Carbon Dioxide – The Waste Product of Our Energy Economy

Summary.  Human activity generates waste.  As the earth’s population grows, and as the world-wide standard of living rises, we create more and more waste.  Examples include household trash, electronic devices, and acid rain.  Most significantly, as we burn more and more fossil fuels to produce the energy that powers modern life, we emit more and more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.  This substance, an important greenhouse gas, is being released as the waste product of our energy economy. 

As with other forms of waste, significant costs are implicit in reversing any harmful effects that the waste may have on our environment.  It is imperative to treat manmade carbon dioxide as a cost-bearing waste product because of the harmful effects of the global warming that it produces.  These harms carry enormous costs with them.  Accounting for these costs makes it more acceptable to make the investments, and bring about the changes needed, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Introduction.  Humans have always generated waste as part of their life activities.  In prehistory and in historical times it has been a simple matter for mankind to discard its waste, typically in a refuse area, and not to be concerned about its effects, its cost or any need for recovery.  (Archeologists relish these deposits for the clues they contain about ancestral daily life!)  Unfortunately in our day carbon dioxide, an important greenhouse gas, likewise has been regarded as a waste not to be concerned about.

Historical Perspective: Production of Waste  The industrial revolution has brought with it a dramatic increase in the complexity of our daily life.  We use and discard products of manufacture, and burn quantities of energy derived from fossil fuels, that were inconceivable two centuries ago (please see the graphic below). 

                    -   -    -    -    -    -    -    -    -    -    -    -    -    -    -    - 

Diagram by Henry E. Auer

Pathway for humanity’s use of resources.  Each stage has costs associated with it.  Here we emphasize the costs incurred at the landfill stage.  The landfill can be a tract of land on earth, or a globalized atmospheric dumping ground for gases.

                    -   -    -    -    -    -    -    -    -    -    -    -    -    -    -    - 

Let’s consider some examples of problems attached to waste disposal, and how they have been resolved.

Household waste, including food waste and discarded common items considered to be “disposable”, has increased dramatically in recent decades.  The world’s population has doubled from three billion souls to six and one-half billion currently in about 50 years.  Much of this increase has been in countries with advanced economies that characteristically produce large amounts of waste.  As the population of the world has grown, so has its waste production.  In earlier centuries, disposal of waste was not a serious problem; land available for dumping waste far exceeded the need.  But this is no longer true.  While we in urban and suburban settings think little of waste disposal, there is in fact a cost associated with it.  Cities and towns typically provide waste disposal service as part of their operations.   New York City, for example, has run out of its own municipal landfills for solid waste.  It exports its refuse to other regions of the U. S. at a cost that was budgeted at $296 million for 2008.  This example shows that costs for dealing with waste must be clearly accounted for.

In recent decades in the U. S. many municipalities have implemented recycling programs directed at waste materials that can have a secondary use, such as aluminum and other metals, paper and various plastic materials. Many of these were originally used in packaging.  Costs associated with recycling may be considered to compensate for the original costs involved in preparing the packaging or other item for its first use.  Here again, local governments have recognized costs associated with wastes generated from human activities, and have accepted spending the money involved.  In 2008, New York City required $24 million for recycling activities, after accounting for revenue from the sale of recycled paper.  The total weight recycled was 611,000 tons.

Electronic products, including viewing personal computers, monitors, printers, and cell phones, have proliferated greatly in recent decades.  The components in these devices are frequently wired together with lead solder, the lead being a toxic heavy metal, and may contain other toxic metals such as mercury, cadmium and beryllium.  Regular and compact fluorescent bulbs contain mercury. In order to prevent these metals from leaching into our soils and water supplies, they should be collected and the toxic substances harvested from them.  In general, the costs involved in dealing with electronic waste are not built into the sales price of the item.  Thus the cycle for dealing with these substances is incomplete (see the preceding graphic); we mine and produce the toxic metals for manufacture of the final product, but do not complete the cycle for handling the toxic substances.   Only recently are recycling programs for electronic products and light bulbs being set up, and these are mostly entirely voluntary.  Society has not adequately recognized the costs involved when marketing and selling the products.

The problem of acid rain came to be recognized in the 1980’s.  The phenomenon refers in part to killing of fresh water fish, and of extensive areas of forest, by acidic components in the atmosphere.  The acidic components were identified as being produced primarily by coal-burning power generating plants upwind of the affected areas.  The coal is contaminated by sulfur, which burns to produce the acidic gas sulfur dioxide.  Burning also produces acidic oxides of nitrogen.  In clouds and raindrops the acidic gases produce sulfurous acid, nitrous acid and nitric acid when combined with water, all of which acidify groundwater when they fall to earth.  The increased acidity kills the waterways and forests, usually many hundreds of miles downwind, and frequently in a different state.  This led at first to the denial by the power companies to accept responsibility for the acid rain phenomenon.

Here again the cost of a waste, the acidic oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, originally was not built into the costs of providing electricity to the utilities’ customers.  By 1990 the Clean Air Act was amended to control these emissions, using a cap and trade market mechanism. The technology involves installing waste gas scrubbers that chemically remove the acidic gases.  By the last decade the program has been considered to be largely successful, reducing the acidic emissions considerably, at a cost estimated between $1-2 billion per year.  As recently as April 14, 2011, an agreement was reached between the Tennessee Valley Authority, which operates coal-fired electricity plants, and the Environmental Protection Agency, four states and environmental groups to close 18 such plants and modernize three dozen others with the objective of reducing acid rain. 

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is the direct product obtained when any fossil fuel is burned in air to provide energy.  Mankind has treated CO₂ as a neglectable product in this process.  Yet CO₂ is the principal greenhouse gas released into the atmosphere by human activity.  Its amounts are unfathomably large, and have grown dramatically since beginning of the industrial revolution hand-in-hand as the production of coal, oil and natural gas have increased.  Fossil fuel extraction and CO₂ production have grown at exponential rates because a) populations that demand the amenities of modern life are growing, b) more and more people around the world are moving from agrarian life to urbanized life styles, and c) urbanized life depends on homes, appliances and modes of transportation all of which consume larger amounts of energy.

Humanity is dumping more and more CO₂, a greenhouse gas, into the “landfill” that is the earth’s atmosphere (see the preceding graphic) with each passing year.  Just as in the examples above, this CO₂ brings with it a cost associated with the effects of its waste dumping.  Increasing atmospheric concentrations of CO₂ produce worsening global warming, whose environmental impacts bring massive costs associated with alleviating their impacts.  These include aridity and drought in some regions with their associated decreases in crop yields and increased incidence and severity of forest fires; increased rainfall and flooding in other regions with their associated crop losses, property losses and human displacements; and rising sea levels, among others.  The costs of these harms are not built in to the economies of extraction and consumption of the fuels.  Just as in the other cases in the examples presented here, our CO₂ economy must incorporate costs associated with, and institute measures directed toward, reducing the emission of CO₂ as well as other manmade greenhouse gases.  We need to embark on these measures in order to limit global warming and its detrimental effects on humanity. 

Conclusion.  Just as in the cases of other commodities produced and consumed by humans, we must recognize and account for the CO₂ waste product of our energy economy.  Simply dumping this waste into the earth’s atmosphere that is our CO₂ “landfill” is harmful to life on earth, because of its effect of worsening global warming.  Recognizing the costs implicit in this waste production justifies the economic and technological investments needed to minimize CO₂ emissions. 

© 2011 Henry Auer

Producing More Natural Gas in the U. S.: The Pickens Plan

Summary.  The U. S. uses about 25% of the world’s energy, yet has only about 4% of the world’s population.  As part of its energy supply, the U. S. uses large amounts of petroleum, over half of which is imported.  Much of the petroleum is used to fuel transportation. 

Natural gas is a fossil fuel that is widely abundant in the U. S., and is more accessible as a result of recent technological improvements.  Natural gas could be used supplant our dependence on petroleum as a fuel.  Nevertheless, extracting this natural gas is tied to controversial problems related to leakage of natural gas, or methane, a far more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, from the wells into the atmosphere, and to potential contamination of ground water and surface water with toxins from the drilling compositions used.

The entrepreneur T. Boone Pickens is promoting extensive use of natural gas to fuel transportation, in order to supplant gasoline, which is derived from petroleum including the oil imports.  He has helped author legislation that would provide tax incentives for the use of natural gas in vehicles, and for the manufacture of vehicles that can burn natural gas.

Developing natural gas as an interim solution to providing energy to the U. S. transportation market would be a useful contribution, providing the problems associated with its production can be resolved.

Introduction.  Fossil Fuel Use in the U. S. The U.S., with 4% of the world’s population, uses about 25% of its energy.  According to the U. S. Energy Information Agency,  a source of independent energy statistics, as of 2009 the U. S. used 18.8 million barrels of petroleum a day, of which 9 million barrels a day was for gasoline used in transportation.  72% of U. S. oil consumption was for transportation.  Supplying this consumption included 9.7 million barrels a day of net petroleum imports (11.7 barrels of crude oil and other petroleum products are imported, but some petroleum was also exported), corresponding to 51% of total consumption.  The U. S. produced 7.3 million barrels of total petroleum products a day, which included crude oil as well as the liquefied equivalent of natural gas.

Coal is the worst of the three fossil fuels, producing the most carbon dioxide (CO₂), the important greenhouse gas, for a given amount of heat energy released.   Greenhouse gases arising from human activity are a major contributor to global warming. 
Natural gas is the most efficient of the fossil fuels, emitting the least CO₂ for the amount of heat energy obtained.  It can be used in electricity plants as well as to fuel cars and trucks when the engine is properly modified.  Nevertheless, natural gas fuel still emits CO₂.  Optimally we should move to renewable energy as soon as possible.

Natural gas is an abundant domestic fuel resource, especially with the development in recent years of hydraulic fracturing technology (“fracking”) to extract it from gas-containing shale formations that occur widely in the U. S.  (see the map below).

Gas shale formations in the U. S., shown in pale green.  Copied from http://fracfocus.org/hydraulic-fracturing-how-it-works/hydraulic-fracturing-process

World-wide, supplies may be sufficient to last as long as 250 years.

At least one major oil company, Shell, is actively producing natural gas as a supplement to extracting crude oil.  In 2012 the company will produce more natural gas than petroleum.  Shell notes that modern gas-fired electricity generating plants emit half the CO₂ of modern coal-fired plants, and 60%-70% less than older, less efficient coal plants.

Hydraulic Fracturing.  Fracking involves two aspects.  The first is horizontally-directed drilling, whereby a vertical shaft is drilled to a depth predicted to contain gas within the rock, then the drilling is reoriented horizontally to reach the oil shale formations.  Several horizontal extensions can be extended from one shaft.  The second aspect is the use high pressure fracturing liquids to rupture the gas-bearing rock and release the natural gas to be brought to the surface.  The fracturing liquids are controversial because they contain proprietary mixtures of chemicals which potentially can contaminate ground water or surface water.

Problems with Natural Gas. The problems with natural gas are two-fold.  Natural gas (i.e., methane) is itself a greenhouse gas which, when released without burning into the atmosphere, is 25x as potent a greenhouse gas as CO₂.  The New York Times on April 11^th, 2011 reported that today’s natural gas wells, especially those using hydraulic fracturing (“fracking”) to release the gas from unconventional shale, leak significant amounts of methane into the atmosphere.  These wells therefore worsen the global warming conundrum, rather than help it.

Second, fracking uses toxic chemicals in water to get the gas out.  Unfortunately the chemicals, as well as toxic substances (metals, radionuclides) leached from the shale, may contaminate ground water and may be released into surface waste water.  The Energy Policy Act of 2005, shepherded by Vice President Dick Cheney, explicitly excluded fracking from coverage under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA).   The New York Times reports  that a study by Rep. Henry Waxman and others finds that hundreds of millions of gallons of fracking compositions containing carcinogens regulated under SDWA were in common use in natural gas recovery.    

This important issue was addressed in a hearing held by the U. S. Senate Committee on the Environment and Public Works on April 12, 2011.  Principal witnesses included Robert Perciasepe, Deputy Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).  One important policy disagreement centered on whether it was sufficient, for protection of the public and its water resources, to allow each state to regulate hydraulic fracturing wells individually, or alternatively was it necessary for the EPA to issue regulations applicable nation-wide.  A second related to instances in which waste water from fracking activities passes through treatment facilities with the fracking contaminants remaining in the effluents, rather than having been removed by treatment.

The Pickens Plan for Use of Natural Gas in Transportation.  T. Boone Pickens, a businessman active in the oil and gas industry, recognizes the disadvantageous position the U. S. is in with regard to its energy economy.  Although the biggest single country supplying the U. S. with oil is Canada, a friendly neighbor, a large fraction comes from countries of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), whose geopolitical interests do not necessarily coincide with those of the U. S.  Using the 2009 rate of imports, but the April 2011 price of about $100/barrel, the U. S. is transferring about $219 billion a year to OPEC countries alone.  This is not in this country’s political or economic interest.

Pickens has responded to this situation with a plan to develop natural gas and alternative energy in order to reduce our dependence on imported petroleum.  This post focuses on the natural gas portion of the plan.  Pickens recognizes that natural gas should not be considered a permanent or complete solution the energy challenges facing the U. S., but rather should be used in the interim to allow fully alternative, renewable energy sources to be developed.  In the long run he believes that, for transportation, new technologies need to be developed and implemented that effectively replace fossil fuels entirely. 

In the meantime he believes that natural gas can serve as a bridge fuel that is more advantageous than using gasoline and diesel made from imported crude oil.  He proposes that cars, light trucks and heavy freight trucks all run on natural gas.  He especially believes that fleet operators and heavy trucks would benefit; his web site states that currently there are no batteries adequate for driving heavy trucks.

Mr. Pickens has promoted the NatGas Act of 2011 (New Alternative Transportation to Give Americans Solutions Act of 2011) (H.R. 1380), sponsored by a bipartisan group of 76 representatives.  The bill offers tax credits a) for use of natural gas as an alternative fuel or in an alternative fuel mixture, b) for a new vehicle powered by natural gas, including heavy trucks weighing more than 26,000 lbs, c) for vehicles converted to operate on natural gas, d) for a refueling facility that dispenses natural gas, and e) to manufacturers producing vehicles operable with natural gas.

Conclusion.  Expanded use of natural gas as a fuel for use domestically in the U. S. would contribute significantly, in the near term, to lowering emissions of CO₂.  By using natural gas we reduce payments of large amounts of money to foreign suppliers of petroleum, many of whose interests do not necessarily coincide with those of the U. S.  The Pickens plan for promoting use of natural gas as a transportation fuel makes sense in the near term.  Nevertheless, the significant problems associated with producing natural gas by hydraulic fracturing, which will be the dominant technology going forward, must be satisfactorily investigated and resolved.  At best, natural gas may make sense to serve as a fuel for use during the transition to fully renewable energy.  We should develop renewable energy as soon as we can.

© 2011 Henry Auer

Diesel

Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (1858–1913), a German thermal engineer, invented the diesel engine and patented it in 1893. Unlike their gasoline counterparts, which ignite an air/fuel mixture using spark plugs, diesel engines compress air to a very high pressure and then inject the fuel. The fuel then ignites due to the high temperature of the compressed air. Diesel engines are relatively fuel-efficient engines commonly used in heavy construction equipment, ships, locomotives, commercial trucks, and some large pickups, as well as in the production of electricity at some power plants or in factories.

Diesel-powered automobiles gained popularity in the United States during the oil crisis of the 1970s because they tend to result in better fuel economy than their gasoline counterparts. But diesel-powered cars have declined in popularity with American drivers since their peak in the mid-1970s because of quality-related problems in early models and because earlier diesel engines did not accelerate as quickly as those powered by gasoline. Diesel passenger cars have also declined in popularity because they are more expensive and they emit more smog-forming pollutants and toxic soot than other conventional internal-combustion engines. For eighteen-wheel trucks and other large vehicles, however, diesel engines are currently the standard.

Read more: Diesel - pollutants, United States, toxic, power, oil http://www.pollutionissues.com/Co-Ea/Diesel.html#ixzz1JW7IsBGa

Consumer Pollution

Consumer pollution refers, in part, to traces of numerous consumer products, including pain relievers, prescription drugs, antibiotics, insect repellent, sunscreens, and fragrances—collectively called pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs)—discovered in inland and ocean waters. Between 1999 and 2000 the United States Geological Survey (USGS) established the widespread occurrence in the environment of minute but measurable quantities of PPCPs, along with other organic wastewater contaminants, such as detergent metabolites , plasticizers, and fire retardants. These contaminants were discovered in 80 percent of 139 waterways downstream from sewage treatment plants and livestock operations. Before 1999 most research into PPCPs took place in Europe, and pharmaceuticals were detected there in sewage treatment effluent, surface water, groundwater, drinking water, and the North Sea.

How PPCPs Enter the Environment

Thousands of PPCPs are consumed worldwide, some on a par with agrochemicals, at rates of thousands of tons a year. These substances enter the environment largely from sewage treatment plants, as well as directly from fish farms, storm runoff, recreational activities, and leaking landfills. Incompletely metabolized drugs or their metabolites—chemicals formed from the body's interaction with the drug—are excreted in the urine and feces of humans and animals. Cosmetics and perfumes are washed off in the shower. Unused drugs are flushed down the toilet or thrown out in the trash. Antibiotics, steroids, and other drugs that are used to treat animals, such as those in confined animal feeding operations, are eventually washed into sewer drains or directly into local waters from roads and farms.

Sewage is treated to break down human waste, but the wide occurrence of eighty-two out of the ninety-five substances tested for in the USGS survey indicates that many synthetic chemicals are not completely removed by sewage treatment methods. PPCPs in wastewater effluent end up in rivers, lakes, and oceans, and contaminants in manure or sewage sludge are spread on land.

Potential Health and Environmental Effects

The concentrations of PPCPs found in the USGS survey range from parts per trillion (ppt) to parts per billion (ppb), or nanograms per liter to micrograms per liter. For pharmaceuticals this is many orders of magnitude below the concentrations prescribed as medication.

However, some PPCPs, such as musk fragrances, are fat soluble and so can bioaccumulate in animal tissue. In addition, many water-soluble PPCPs are effectively persistent if they are continually replenished from sewage effluent. Fish and other aquatic species could therefore be permanently exposed to these chemicals. Although research on the environmental effect of PPCPs is sparse, some studies link low concentrations of oral contraceptives, along with reproductive estrogens, to the feminization of male fish. When exposed to the estrogens, male fish produce vitellogenin, an egg protein, usually found only in the females. Other studies show that fluoxetine, marketed as Prozac, affects reproductive hormonal activity in zebra mussels, crayfish, and fiddler crabs. Some scientists think that aquatic species could be harmed

Frequency of Detection of PPCPs in Streams (2002) (

Frequency of Detection of PPCPs in Streams. (2002). "Pharmaceuticals, Hormones and Other Organic Wastewater Contaminants in U.S. Streams. 1999-2000: A National Reconnaissance." Environmental Science and Technology 36, no. 6:202-1211

)

FREQUENCY OF DETECTION OF PPCPS IN STREAMS

Percentage of streams in which contaminant was found	Category of contaminant	Representative substances found (median concentration, in ppb)
SOURCE: Frequency of Detection of PPCPs in Streams. (2002). "Pharmaceuticals, Hormones and Other Organic Wastewater Contaminants in U.S. Streams. 1999–2000: A National Reconnaissance." Environmental Science and Technology 36, no. 6:202–1211
89%	Steroids	Cholesterol (0.83), coprostanol (fecal steroid) (0.88)
81%	Nonprescription drugs	Acetaminophen (0.11), caffeine (0.081), ibuprofen (0.2), cotinine (nicotine metabolite) (0.05)
74%	Insect repellent	DEET (0.06)
66%	Disinfectants	Phenol (0.04), triclosan (0.14)
48%	Antibiotics	Erythromycin metabolite (0.1), ciproflaxin (0.02), sulfamethoxazole (0.15)
37%	Reproductive hormones	17-alpha-ethynyl estradiol (0.073) (birth control), estrone (0.027)
32%	Other prescription drugs	Codeine (0.012), dehydronifedipine (antianginal) (0.012), diltiazem (0.021) (antihypertensive), fluoxetine (0.012) (antidepressant)
27%	Fragrances	Acetophenone (0.15)

more by pollutants if they are exposed to efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs). EPIs decrease the cell's ability to expel potentially harmful substances and are prescribed to help drugs pass through cell walls.

Another concern is that fish and other species constantly exposed to mixtures of low levels of PPCPs will be affected in small, undetectable ways that lead to irreversible changes over time. Such small shifts in behavior, immunology, and reproduction may be attributed to natural adaptation and may not be recognized as a consequence of pollution. Seventy-five percent of streams in the USGS survey contained more than one contaminant, and 13 percent contained more than twenty.

The presence of antibiotics in 48 percent of the streams and potentially in soil that is overlaid with sewage sludge could be a factor in the increase in antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria.

There is also a potential threat to human health. Recharging groundwater from surface water constantly infused with treated sewage effluent could result in PPCP contamination in drinking water. Some pharmaceuticals, including clofibric acid, have been detected in parts per trillion in drinking water in Germany. Clofibric acid is a metabolite of drugs taken by many people to reduce cholesterol levels in the blood. The long-term effect of swallowing very low, subtherapeutic amounts of multiple medications simultaneously many times a day for a lifetime is unknown.

Current and Proposed Research

Scientists in Germany are researching treatment methods to remove PPCPs from wastewater before it enters rivers and oceans, and from potable water. Results to date show that ozone treatment and/or filtering water through granular activated carbon effectively removes the pharmaceuticals commonly found in drinking water in Berlin.

Research in the United States in 2002 is aimed at establishing where and in what concentration organic wastewater contaminants, including PPCPs, are found. PPCPs are not currently part of any water-monitoring program in the United States. The USGS is conducting a survey of these contaminants in groundwater and in sources of drinking water. Other research is focused on the presence of pharmaceuticals, including anticancer drugs and anticonvulsants in wastewater and drinking water.

Some scientists are proposing research to find out which PPCPs are harmful, especially to aquatic species, and how these chemicals work at the molecular level. Scientists also want to study whether exposure to a combination of different pharmaceuticals at low concentrations, especially those that work in the same way, poses a risk to humans or wildlife. Research is needed to develop analytical methods sensitive enough to detect traces of all the different pharmaceuticals and active ingredients in personal care products and to develop new ways for measuring subtle rather than acute toxic environmental changes.

Prevention and Recycling / Reuse

Source reduction, recycling, and replacement with "green" pharmaceuticals could help reduce excess or unused, expired medications. Disposal advice on packaging could recommend that drugs be recycled or disposed of in a controlled manner. Reducing the number of pills per container could reduce the amount of expired medication. Drug manufacturers could also find ways to minimize excess expired inventory.

Regulations

In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration requires an environmental assessment for new drugs when manufacturers predict that one ppb or more will enter the environment. The drug is then tested for acute toxicity, such as whether it causes cancer. Although most individual contaminants measured in the USGS study had concentrations below one ppb, the maximum total concentration of the thirty-three suspected or known hormonally active compounds was fifty-seven ppb. Some scientists argue that individual concentrations may not be significant for predicting risk, but concentrations of all drugs that behave in the same way should be considered.

Health Canada is at the beginning of a regulatory process that will require environmental assessment of products regulated under Canada's Food and Drug Act.

In Europe, since 1998, pharmaceuticals used in veterinary medicine must be tested for their environmental effect before they can be registered, unless the concentration predicted to enter groundwater is less than 0.1 ppb or less than ten ppb for drugs in soil. Similar standards are being considered for regulating pharmaceuticals taken by humans. Testing includes checking for inhibited algal growth, for acute, chronic, or bioaccumulation exposure in fish, for reproductive changes in birds, for earthworm toxicity, and for plant growth.

Read more: Consumer Pollution - water, effects, environmental, pollutants, United States, causes, EPA, soil, chemicals, toxic, human, sources, disposal, health http://www.pollutionissues.com/Co-Ea/Consumer-Pollution.html#ixzz1JW73fnzJ

Burn Barrels

People used to think that burning household trash and yard waste in an open barrel was an inexpensive, good way to get rid of it. However, today's packaging and products are often made from plastics, dyes, and other synthetics. When burned, these cause air pollution and, in a number of U.S. states and municipalities, it is illegal. Burn barrels operate at relatively low temperatures, typically at 400 to 500° Fahrenheit (F) and have poor combustion efficiency (municipal incinerators run in the 1200 to 2000° F range).

As a result, many pollutants are generated and emitted directly into the air. Backyard trash and leaf burning often release high levels of toxic compounds, some of which are carcinogenic . Smoke from burning garbage often contains acid gases, heavy metal vapors, carbon monoxide and other sorts of dangerous toxins. One of the most harmful pollutants released during open trash burning is dioxin, a known carcinogen associated with birth defects. Dioxin can be inhaled directly or deposited on soil, water, and crops, where it becomes part of the food chain. Research has demonstrated that a single burn barrel can generate as much dioxin as a municipal incinerator serving thousands of households.

Read more: Burn Barrels - water, environmental, pollutants, EPA, soil, toxic http://www.pollutionissues.com/Br-Co/Burn-Barrels.html#ixzz1JW6fLVw6

Carbon Monoxide

Carbon monoxide is an invisible, odorless, and poisonous gas with the chemical formula CO. Because of its toxicity, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates CO. The gas is a by-product of incomplete combustion (burning with insufficient oxygen). Its major source is vehicle exhaust (60 percent). Other sources include water heaters and furnaces, gas-powered

Sources of Carbon Monoxide in the Home

engines (boats and lawn mowers), charcoal and wood fires, agricultural burning, and tobacco smoke.

CO is classified as an indirect greenhouse gas. It does not contribute to global warming directly, but leads to the formation of ozone. Ozone is the major air pollutant formed in photochemical smog and a potent greenhouse gas.

Human exposure to elevated CO impairs oxygen uptake in the bloodstream. Under CO-free conditions, oxygen is transported from the lungs to tissues by hemoglobin. When CO is present, it mimics the shape of oxygen and binds instead to the hemoglobin. The molecule is not easily released, blocking further oxygen uptake, and ultimately depriving organs and tissues of life-sustaining oxygen. The symptoms of CO poisoning range from dizziness, mild headaches, and nausea at lower levels to severe headaches, seizures, and death at higher levels.

The EPA national outdoor air quality standard for CO is nine parts per million or ppm (0.0009 percent) averaged over an eight-hour period. The gas is life-threatening after three hours at 400 ppm (0.04 percent) and within minutes at 1.28 percent. In 1996, 525 deaths in the United States were attributed to unintentional and 1,988 deaths to intentional CO poisoning.

Exposure to CO can be reduced by assuring adequate ventilation when near any combustion source. Indoor cooking with charcoal and running gaspowered engines inside a garage are both dangerous and should be avoided. Fuel-burning appliances and fireplaces ought to be routinely inspected.

CO detectors are available to detect less obvious sources, such as a malfunctioning furnace. The sensors operate in one of three ways: They mimic the body's response to CO (biomimetic detectors), they allow a heated metal oxide to react with the gas (metal oxide detectors), or they facilitate a reaction using platinum electrodes immersed in an electrolyte solution (electrochemical detectors). The lowest level that a CO alarm can detect is 70 ppm.

Read more: Carbon Monoxide - water, environmental, United States, EPA, human, sources, life http://www.pollutionissues.com/Br-Co/Carbon-Monoxide.html#ixzz1JW6JESZO

Cleanup

The cleanup of environmental pollution involves a variety of techniques, ranging from simple biological processes to advanced engineering technologies. Cleanup activities may address a wide range of contaminants, from common industrial chemicals such as petroleum products and solvents , agricultural chemicals and metals, to radionuclides . Cleanup technologies may be specific to the contaminant (or contaminant class) and to the site. This entry addresses the cleanup of contaminated soil and water. Air pollution is addressed generally at the point of release by control technologies, because the opportunities to capture and recover airborne contaminants are limited once they are released into the atmosphere.

Cleanup costs can vary dramatically depending on the contaminants, the media affected, and the size of the contaminated area. Much of the

Tractor-drawn tankers are being used to clear oil beached to the west of Angle Bay, following the grounding of the tanker Sea Empress off Milford Haven in southwest Wales, U.K., 1996. (

©Bryan Pickering; Eye Ubiquitous/Corbis. Reproduced by permission.

)

remediation to date has been in response to such historical chemical management practices as dumping, poor storage, and uncontrolled release or spillage. Greater effort in recent years has been directed toward pollution prevention, which is more cost-effective than remediation. Programs such as Superfund in the United States, as well as parallel state programs, represent a commitment of billions of dollars to the cleanup of contaminated sites.

Many industry-specific cleanup programs (e.g., Florida's dry cleaner program) are funded by taxes or fees levied on that industry. Several Western European countries have environmental programs that are at least as aggressive as those in the United States. Countries with emerging economies are working hard to address environmental contamination with limited resources. Many cases of environmental contamination in former Warsaw Pact , for example, are associated with former Soviet military bases. In Poland, cleanup of several of these bases is under way. In Kluczewo, northwestern Poland, a former military base is reportedly the biggest and most contaminated such site in Central Europe. A skimming technique was used to remove liquid petroleum fuel from the subsurface followed by bioremediation of the remaining contaminated soil. The Polish government paid for the work with support from local sources.

Government involvement in environmental remediation includes consideration of the safety of the cleanup workers. Professionals involved in the cleanup of contaminated sites may have long-term exposure to a variety of hazardous materials and, as such, must be protected against adverse health

Two workers wearing gas masks and protective clothing loading debris contaminated by dioxin into tractor trailers. (

©Bettmann/Corbis. Reproduced by permission.

)

impacts. Such protection begins with the planning and implementation of characterization and clean up efforts. Minimizing contact with contaminated media is the optimal method for managing risk to site workers. When such contact is necessary, or when the nature of the contamination is unknown, as in initial characterization activities, personnel protective equipment (PPE) is used to protect site workers. The major routes of exposure for workers at contaminated sites are through dermal (skin) or inhalation pathways. PPE is categorized by the level of protection it provides to these two exposure pathways, ranging from simple dermal protection such as overalls and gloves to fully encapsulating suits with supplied air. The level of protection needed is based on the nature and extent of knowledge of site conditions—less information requires more protection.

In most cases, it is financially or physically impractical to completely remove all traces of contamination. In such cases, it is necessary to set an acceptable level of residual contamination. Evaluating experimental toxicity data and then extrapolating to potential exposure scenarios forms the basis for such decisions. The result of these evaluations is an estimate of risk for given adverse outcome (e.g., cancer or death). Risk-based target levels typically determine when cleanup is complete. As a result, evolution of cleanup technologies has yielded four general categories of remediation approaches: (1) physical removal (with or without treatment); (2) in situ conversion by physical or chemical means to less toxic or less mobile forms; (3) containment ; and (4) passive cleanup, or natural attenuation . Combinations of technologies may be used at some sites.

Physical Removal

The physical removal of contaminated soil and groundwater has been, and continues to be, a common cleanup practice. However, physical removal does not eliminate the contamination, but rather transfers it to another location. In ideal cases, the other location will be a facility that is specially designed to contain the contamination for a sufficient period of time. In this way, proper removal reduces risk by reducing or removing the potential for exposure to the contamination. Removal options vary dramatically for soil and groundwater, as described below.

Soils. Excavation of contaminated soils works well for limited areas of contamination that are close to the ground surface. Under ideal conditions, the disposal location is a designed, regulated, and controlled disposal facility (e.g., a landfill or incineration facility). Alternatively, contaminated soil may be excavated and consolidated in a prepared facility on-site. Prepared disposal facilities range from simple excavations with impermeable covers (caps) to sophisticated containment structures such as those used in modern landfills. Landfills typically consist of multiple layers of impermeable materials—often combinations of synthetic (plastic) liners and compacted layers of dense clays; piping to collect and transport liquids generated within the landfill (leachate); and systems of sensors within and surrounding the landfill to detect leaks. When contaminated soil is excavated , transported, and disposed of properly, physical removal can be an effective and economical cleanup option.

Treatment of excavated soil, to either destroy the contaminant or to reduce its toxicity or mobility often is associated with physical removal. Treatment following removal will differ with the chemical of concern. Many organics (e.g., solvents, pesticides, oils) may be incinerated or landfilled effectively. Some metals require conversion to compounds that will not react with other substances before being transferred to a landfill. Treatment options also can be troublesome as landfill space decreases and public opposition to incineration increases in some areas. However, effective air pollution controls are available to manage incinerator emissions, and engineering for landfill construction now includes sophisticated liners, leachate controls, and management practices to prevent groundwater contamination or other forms of cross-pollution.

Beyond excavation, more selective removal technologies have been developed for contaminants in soil, including soil washing, which uses processing equipment and chemical solvents to "wash" contaminants from soil. In practice, soil washing often is complicated and expensive. Phytoextraction—the use of plants to remove soil contaminants—has achieved favor in some applications. Selected plant species may remove and concentrate inorganic contaminants such as heavy metals and radionuclides in the above- or below-ground tissues. If phytoextraction is successful, the resulting plant tissue will have high levels of the soil contaminant and be classified as hazardous waste, requiring appropriate treatment or disposal options (see previous section). To date, phytoextraction has been used only at relatively small sites.

One of the best-documented cases of heavy metal phytoremediation in the United States was conducted at a former battery manufacturing site in Trenton, New Jersey. The land surrounding this urban facility that was in operation from the 1930s until 1980 was highly contaminated with lead. For two vegetation seasons Indian mustard plants were used to reduce the concentration of lead in the soil to below regulatory limits. This cleanup effort illustrates the potential for innovative, biological remediation technologies.

Sediments are the inorganic (e.g., clay, silt, sand) and organic (plant and animal) materials that settle to the bottom of water bodies. Aquatic sediments often become contaminated by a wide variety of man-made chemicals including agricultural chemicals such as pesticides that are washed into water bodies, industrial chemicals that are released into water bodies or that leak from containment structures as well as the many products that are transported by water. Contamination in aquatic sediments may affect the organisms that live within the sediments, or may bioaccumulate through the food chain as larger species feed on organisms that have absorbed the contamination. Remediating such contamination requires choosing between the risks associated with leaving the contamination in place and the risks associated with excavating the sediments (and resuspending them in the water), transporting and disposing of them.

Groundwater. Liquid or solid chemicals, when disposed of by burial or direct release onto the ground surface, can migrate down into the soil structure and come in contact with groundwater. Final disposition of these chemicals depends on their volatility and water solubility. Aqueous phase chemicals, chemicals that are soluble in water, dissolve in and move with groundwater. Nonaqueous phase chemicals (NAPLs) do not dissolve in water and may be either lighter than water (light nonaqueous phase liquids or LNAPLs) or heavier than water (dense nonaqueous phase liquids or DNAPLs). The distinction between DNAPLs and LNAPLs has a significant impact on the detection and remediation of organic contamination.

LNAPLs such as petroleum products (e.g., gasoline, diesel, oils) are common contaminants in urban, industrial, and agricultural areas. DNAPLs such as chlorinated solvents—trichloroethylene (TCE) and perchloroethylene (PCE)—are found also in urban and industrial areas, most commonly in association with the dry cleaning industry, where previous management practices often resulted in the spilling or dumping of these chemicals. These NAPLs pool above (LNAPL) or below (DNAPL) groundwater bodies, dissolving slowly into, and potentially contaminating, enormous volumes of water. In states that rely heavily on groundwater for drinking water, billions of dollars have been spent in the last two decades to replace leaking underground gasoline storage tanks (LUSTs) and to clean up historical contamination.

When contamination is detected in groundwater, one common cleanup approach is to drill wells, then pump out and purify the contaminated water using a variety of methods, including air stripping , where compounds are volatized from the water into the air. This technique does not rid the environment of the pollutants, however, as the contaminants are merely transferred from the water to the air. Less volatile compounds, or those at low concentrations, may be removed by filtration through a solid sorbent , such as activated carbon. This "pump and treat" approach addresses only the dissolved, aqueous phase of contamination, while leaving the concentrated, nonaqueous "pool" as a continuing source of groundwater contamination. As a result, "pump and treat" may be a prolonged process. The detection and elimination of NAPL source zones of contamination are more desirable where feasible.

In order to remove sources of groundwater contamination, technologies are needed to accurately detect and measure the amounts of these chemicals. Well drilling is commonly used to investigate or remediate contaminated sites, though it is relatively slow and expensive, and it brings up contaminated soil that must be disposed of properly. Direct push technologies use large vehicles equipped with hydraulic rams or percussion equipment to push metal tubes into the ground. Special sensors on the advancing tip of these tubes provide information on the nature of the sediments being penetrated. Recent advances in this technology allow special chemical sensors to be deployed on the end of the tube providing information on the presence and concentration of chemicals in the ground. The hollow tube also can be used to collect soil and groundwater samples. When sampling is complete, the rods typically are removed from the ground and the hole is sealed. While depth and geology limit "direct push," it is generally faster than well drilling, and it does not contaminate the soil.

Once source zones have been identified, technologies may be deployed to remove contamination. One of the most popular approaches to removing NAPLs is thermal treatment. Heating contaminated soil and groundwater to the boiling point of the contaminant will convert liquids to gases, which move through the soil. Wells are used to extract the resulting gases that can then be absorbed by activated carbon, or heated to temperatures high enough to break them down into harmless elements. Typically, soils are heated in one of two ways: electrical resistance or steam injection. Electrical resistance heating uses electrodes placed in the ground between which electrical currents are passed. The soil's resistance to the movement of the electrical current produces heat. Steam heating pumps high-pressure steam into the ground through injection wells.

Conversion

Conversion uses chemical reactions to change contaminants into less toxic or less mobile forms. These chemical reactions may be produced by the introduction of reactive chemicals to the contaminated area, or by the action of living organisms such as bacteria.

The use of biological systems to clean up contamination is known as bioremediation . Bioremediation includes all cleanup technologies that take advantage of biological processes to remove contaminants from soil and groundwater; the most common technique is microbial metabolism. For decades, scientists have known that microbes can degrade certain organic contaminants, and in cases of historical contamination, microbial communities often adapt to take advantage of the energy released when these chemicals are degraded (i.e., metabolized). By studying the existing conditions, substances that microbes need to break down chemicals, such as nutrients or oxygen, may be added to enhance biodegradation. Microbial biodegradation is capable of degrading most organic contaminants.

For example, under ideal conditions, microbes can degrade the organic constituents of petroleum hydrocarbons such as gasoline or diesel fuel, to carbon dioxide and water. This is the concept behind a technology being used by the U.S. Department of Energy to remove petroleum contamination from soils that also contain low levels of radioactive materials. The combination of hazardous materials (petroleum) and radiation places this soil in the regulatory category of mixed waste, for which disposal is extremely difficult. By using biodegradation to remove the petroleum component, the remaining soil can be classified as low-level radioactive waste, which has an accepted disposal mechanism.

Soils. Heavy metals are a common target for conversion approaches. Removal may not be practical when such metals contaminate large areas of surface soil. In these cases, chemical approaches often are sought to convert the metals to a less toxic and less mobile form. Such conversions often involve the use of reactive agents such as sulfur to create immobile sulfide salts of metals (e.g., mercury). Reducing the mobility of soil contaminants often refers to reducing the water solubility of the compounds. Reducing water solubility lowers the potential for contaminants to become dissolved in and move with water in the subsurface.

Groundwater. DNAPLs such as chlorinated solvents may be treated with chemicals (e.g., potassium permanganate) that degrade the solvents into relatively harmless chemicals. When combined with chlorinated solvents, potassium permanganate removes chloride ions , which results in the degradation of these chemicals to carbon dioxide (CO ₂ ) and water. This technology holds promise as a tool for remediating these challenging contaminants.

Containment

Situations exist in which technologies are not available or practical to remove or convert contaminants. In those situations, it is often possible to contain the contamination as a final solution or as an interim measure until appropriate technologies become available.

Soils. Radionuclides from historical weapons production and nuclear testing, as well as from industrial uses of radiation, appear to be a good match for developing containment technologies. For example, containment is a promising technology for the management of radioactively contaminated soils beneath the large high-level radioactive waste storage tanks at the U.S. Department of Energy Hanford site in Washington State. Removing radioactive contamination from soil is problematic from a worker-safety standpoint, and it may create further contamination of equipment, containers, and surrounding areas. Efforts to develop effective physical containment technologies for soil contaminants are continuous.

Groundwater. Groundwater is not generally suitable for absolute containment; however, between containment and conversion is a technology known as reactive barriers. Reactive barriers intercept contaminated groundwater plumes and are constructed of chemically reactive materials (e.g., iron) that bind or convert dissolved contaminants. Reactions between the contaminant and the iron either immobilize or degrade the contaminant by altering its chemical form (redox manipulation).

Passive Cleanup

Passive remediation technologies are increasingly common in some applications, and take advantage of naturally occurring chemical or biological processes that degrade contaminants to less toxic forms. The accepted term for this group of technologies is monitored natural attenuation (MNA), which is the result of regulatory recognition that natural biological processes are capable of degrading certain contaminants under specific conditions and that dispersion may aid in achieving objectives. MNA is employed for the cleanup of organic contaminants such as petroleum hydrocarbons in situations where the longer time frame associated with MNA does not increase the risks posed by the contamination. MNA recognizes that, while these processes are possible, they must be monitored to insure that the expected progression actually occurs. In the State of Florida, MNA is being used as an approved cleanup action for some former dry cleaning sites. At these sites, natural processes are being monitored as they degrade chlorinated solvents from the former dry cleaning operations.

MNA is one example of major innovation in this area. Environmental cleanup is a dynamic field. Advances in science and engineering fuel innovative approaches and technologies, and advanced technologies provide greater capabilities in meeting the ultimate goal of a safer and healthier environment.

Read more: Cleanup - water, environmental, pollutants, United States, impact, EPA, soil, chemicals, industrial, liquid, wells, toxic, sources, disposal, use, health, oil http://www.pollutionissues.com/Br-Co/Cleanup.html#ixzz1JW5yncbc